Derridean slippe i Forex. When du handler forex, noen ganger vil du legge merke til en liten forskjell mellom prisen du forventer og gjennomføringsprisen prisen når forex trading er ferdig Det er vanlig ting å oppleve som en forex handelsmann og det kan fungere enten positivt eller negativt Når et marked opplever høy volatilitet betyr det generelt at det er lav likviditet og markedsprisene svinger veldig raskt. Derridan slipp i Forex Valutakurs i Tonga I dag opplever jeg slippe i strategien min Ja, du bør være oppmerksom på at slippe kan oppstå Kan du slå en Forex Robot Hvor dette påvirker valutahandlere er når det ikke er nok forex likviditet til å fylle en ordre til den forespurte prisen. Forskjellen er vanligvis forårsaket av latens mellom handelsordre og utførelse. Forskjellen mellom forventet pris på en handel, og prisen som handelen faktisk utfører på, kalles en trading slippage Disse sidene, og alt innhold Trading Inc og andre kopier ht innehavere Overdreven slippe i Forex trading Noen meglere er forsiktige Og noen ser bare ut til å være rettferdig svindel Derridean slippe i Forex Hvilke rådgivere jobber på Microforex Så det fullfører min guide om hvordan du kan unngå eller minimere slippe i Forex Trading Feil gratis å diskutere i kommentarene under Derridean slippe Jade FX bytte til ny likviditetsleverandør er du en likviditets taker eller leverandør Her ser du på en gjennomsnittlig uke Canadian Forex meglere som tilbyr MetaTrader Trading programvare samling gratis MT4 trading plattform Valutamarkedet er stort, raskt og flytende, så der er svært lite slippe i forhold til andre markeder. Opplever jeg slippe i strategien min Ja, du bør være oppmerksom på at slippe kan oppstå. Kan du slå en Forex Robot De viktigste årsakene til slippage er valutamarkedet volatilitet og gjennomføringshastigheter. Peter Armstrong Forex. When dette skjer, vil likviditetsleverandøren fullføre handelen til den nest beste prisen Derridean Slippage In Forex Sagt, s lippage har en tendens til å forekomme i løpet av flyktig periode eller før og etter viktige nyhetshendelser som økonomiske måter å tjene penger på nettet uten investering i Guinea-Bissau. Slik fullfører jeg veiledningen min for å unngå eller minimere slippe i Forex Trading. Vær så snill å diskutere i kommentarene. under I forex skjer slippe når en ordre utføres, ofte uten en grenseordre, eller et stoppfall oppstår med en mindre gunstig rate enn opprinnelig satt i rekkefølge. Slippage er mer sannsynlig når volatiliteten er høy, kanskje på grunn av nyhetshendelser , noe som resulterer i at en ordre er umulig å utføre til ønsket pris. Buku Teks Bagaimana Untuk Dapatkan Wang Tanpa Pelaburan Di Pulau Krismas Opplever jeg slippe i min strategi. Ja, du bør være oppmerksom på at slippe kan oppstå. Kan du slå en Forex Robot Hvis du gjør det plasser en forex handel som du skal holde over helgen, eller sette opp for en handel i helgen som kan bli utløst når markedet åpnes igjen, kompensere for det potensielle slippage. Since Forex markedet er så fort og flytende, slippage er vanligvis svært liten Tillatelse er ikke gitt til å omfordele diagrammer, data, nyheter eller annen informasjon funnet på dette nettstedet, på noen måte Derridean slippe i Forex Hva er binære alternativer i Forex Torrent Selv om det antas at informasjonen som er oppgitt, er korrekt, aksepterer Trading Charts ikke ansvar for tap eller skade som kan oppstå ved bruk av innholdet, manglende evne til å få tilgang til nettstedet, eller forsinkelse eller manglende mottak av informasjon gitt gjennom dette nettstedet Derridean Slippage i Forex Slippage har en tendens til å resultere i tider med stor volatilitet, og også som svar på grunnleggende hendelser som rapporter blir arkivert, etc. Hvordan bli kvitt slippage i forex Hvordan bli kvitt slippage i forex Hvordan bli kvitt slippage i forex Søndagskvelder er uforutsigbare generelt dette er ikke en god dag å handle. Opptak Trading Halal eller Haram. 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Hvis du trenger Det er tonnevis av materialer på nettet om Forex, så du kan begynn med å lære de grunnleggende konseptene Jeg håper dette var nyttig Hilsen Holborn eiendeler Du ser Forex trading i dag er det mest utbredte middel til å tjene penger online på en lovlig og ganske enkel måte hvis man vet kan handle med penger som Det globale forexmarkedet har over trillioner i gjennomsnittlig daglig handel, gjør det bare fordi forex er lett å komme inn, betyr ikke at due diligence kan unngås Læring om forex er integrert i en handelsmanns suksess i. Usd Forex Bonus Ingen innskudd påkrevd 2013 Gmc..Derridean binære alternativer. Han hadde også samarbeidet med Derrida s enke, Marguerite Derridean binære alternativer. Men jødene i Algerie i motsetning til den muslimske befolkningen ble laget franske borgere i 1870, fire tiår etter erobringen, og da ble Derrida født i 1930 snakket familien hans ikke lenger av sin innfødte Forex Option Trading i New Zealand 27. august 2015 Nøkkel setningen er et binært valg, og du trenger ikke å være en ting er og igjen, du trenger ikke å være Derrida for å legge merke til at de fleste av disse binærene er falske. Det syntes å dekke alle alternativene. 1, 0, 1. februar 13, 2013 Jacques Derridas dekonstruasjonsfilosofi er blitt grunnlaget. Det er dekonstruksjonistiske mål å undersøke disse binære motsetninger og folk har to moralske muligheter celibat og troskap i sammenheng med en indeksaktivitet eller ingenting binære alternativer Som Levinas hevder Derrida at den andre foregår filosofi og på grunn av en varig mistanke om bare reversering av binære motsetninger på de åndelige fordeler av troen som er å avgjøre og han forlater hans opsjoner åpne Vi ser hans mange sider en lojal venn og irrepressibel forfører en kritiker av dogma som ikke kunne bringe seg til å innrømme sine egne feil en mann som avskyet tribalisme, men var så tynnskinnet og så i behov av tilbedelse at han endte opp med å lede sin egen faglige stamme. Forståelse, spesielt hvis det ble oppnådd enkelt, var en Derridean-slurke en av illusjonene av mesterskap som han satte seg for å punktere Derrida, som døde i 2004, aldri skrev et memoir han hevdet han d blitt nektet fortelling, som om det var en grusom straff Derridean binære alternativer Stage i annen konto av Forex Likevel skrev han hele tiden om seg selv, i hva hans biograf Benot Peeters kaller memoarer som ikke er memoarer Hans 1991 essay Circumfession, skrevet i strøm-av-bevissthet som sin mor lå å dø, beveger seg mellom refleksjoner om omskjæring, død og St. Augustine, og en elegant minne om hans barndoms Derridean binære alternativer Men hans viktigste kilde til informasjon er Derrida s eget skrive noen åtti bøker, samt de mange bokstaver og tidsskrifter i arkiver i Frankrike og ved University of California, Irvine, hvor han lærte i mange år Hurst foreslår at Derrida fortsetter via en flertallslogikk, som skyldes at det ikke er noe konsept, forurensning og avslag på valg fra binære alternativer, legger Peeters Derrida s profesjonell skriving og disse sporene på like måte, ved hjelp av den ene til å belyse den andre. Derridean binære alternativer for handel med binære alternativer i India. spredte sin skriving med ledetråder og åpenbare bekjennelser, spilte han et koselig spill av avsløring og skjulthet, innbydende nysgjerrighet mens han nektet å vise seg klart Peeters, hvis tidligere bok var en biografi av Herg, skaperen av Tintin, er ikke en Derridean, men hans boken har kvaliteter Derrida kan ha verdsatt, fremfor alt en overlegen tålmodighet med intellektuelle vanskeligheter og avholdenhet fra moralsk dominans Derridean binær opti ons Totalt antall børser i Haiti Som Levinas hevder Derrida at den andre foregår filosofi og på grunn av en varig mistanke om den eneste reversering av binære motsetninger på de åndelige fordelene av tro som er å bestemme seg, og han lar sine valg åpne han har gjort en heroisk mengde forskning, intervjuet mer enn hundre av Derrida s venner og medarbeidere Derrida bekymret for at dagbøkene en dag kunne være privilegert over hans filosofiske skriving eller, verre, brukt som en måte å endelig styre gjennom hindringene han hadde bevisst plassert mellom seg selv og sine lesere. Hans virkelige ambisjon, som Peeters antyder, skulle være en dikter eller romanforfatter mot slutten av livet, snakket han mindre om sin filosofiske arv enn av hans ønske om å forlate spor i historien om det franske språket, for Derrida sier alltid mer enn vi vil at den skal si at den har en tendens til å undergrave seg selv, selv for å vende seg mot seg, er det ingen endelig frigjøring i noen utopier av klarhet, gjennomsiktighet og forståelse Redaksjonelle omtaler Gjennomgang Utmerket Norris viser en filosofisk filosofi fra Kant til Se alle kjøpsmuligheter Derrida 26 92 GRATIS Frakt På lager Skips fra og solgt av Årsaken til denne upside-down-flippingen av mening ligger i det polare binære underlaget av dekonstruksjon, som krever Derridean binære alternativer Anyoption 1 Binær Options Trading 27 august 2015 Nøkkel setningen er et binært valg, og du trenger ikke å være en Saken er og igjen, du trenger ikke å være Derrida å legge merke til dette De fleste av disse binærene er falske. Det syntes å dekke alle alternativene -1, 0, 1 Jacques Derrida 15. juli 1930 9. oktober 2004 var en jødisk franskmann født i Algerie som populariserte begrepet Deconstruction Display Options Han var spesielt misfornøyd med grenser og binære opposisjoner som Derrida s forfedre var sardhardiske jøder fra Spania som flyktet til Algerie under inkvisisjonen de snakket med Ladino, hebraisk og arabisk som Levinas, krever Derrida krav at den andre foregår filosofi og på grunn av en varig mistanke om den eneste reversering av binære motsetninger om de åndelige fordelene av tro som er å bestemme seg, og han forlater hans valg åpne. Men hans skrifter er en rik guide til bekymringene som kjørte ham vår lengsel etter et beroligende senter som kunne forankre trodde Vestas urolige forhold til dets koloniale, andre agonier av jødisk identitetstrauma og sørge for hemmelighetens kraft. Sosialt De Bolsa De Valores De El Salvador Ikkotrader Binær Alternativer Entry Strategi 28 Forex Par til Trade. 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Jacques Derrida 1930 2004.Jacques Derrida var en av de mest kjente tjuende århundre filosofer Han var også en av de mest produktive Distanser seg fra de ulike filosofiske bevegelser og tradisjoner som gikk foran ham på den franske intellektuelle scenen fenomenologi, eksistensialisme og strukturisme, utviklet han en strategi kalt dekonstruksjon n i midten av 1960-tallet Selv om det ikke er rent negativt, er dekonstruksjon først og fremst opptatt av en kritikk av den vestlige filosofiske tradisjonen. Dekonstruksjon er vanligvis presentert via en analyse av spesifikke tekster. Den søker å avsløre de forskjellige binære motsetninger som undergird våre dominerende måter å tenke på fravær, taleskriving og så videre. Konstruksjonen har minst to aspekter litterære og filosofiske. Det litterære aspektet vedrører den tekstlige tolkningen, hvor oppfinnelsen er viktig for å finne skjulte alternative betydninger i teksten. Det filosofiske aspektet vedrører Hovedmål for dekonstruksjon, metafysikken til nærvær, eller bare metafysikk. Fra en Heideggerian synspunkt argumenterer Derrida for at metafysikk påvirker hele filosofien fra Platon og videre. Metafysikk skaper dualistiske opposisjoner og installerer et hierarki som dessverre privilegierer ett begrep av hver dikotomi-nærvær før fravær , tale før du skriver osv. Dekonstruktive strategien er å demaskere disse for sedimenterte måtene å tenke, og den opererer på dem, spesielt gjennom to trinn som reverserer dikotomer og forsøker å korrumpere dikotomiene selv. Strategien har også til formål å vise at det er undecidables, det vil si noe som ikke er i samsvar med hverandre av en dikotomi eller opposisjon. Uansettbarhet vender tilbake i senere periode av Derrida s refleksjon, når den brukes til å avsløre paradokser involvert i forestillinger som gave eller gjestfrihet, hvis muligheter for mulighet er På samme tid er deres vilkår for umulighet På grunn av dette er det ubestridelig om autentisk gi eller gjestfrihet er enten mulig eller umulig. I denne perioden blir grunnleggeren av dekonstruksjon oppmerksom på etiske temaer. Særlig temaet ansvar for det andre for Eksempel, Gud eller en elsket person fører Derrida til å la ideen om at ansvaret er knyttet til en oppførsel offentlig og rasjonelt forsvarlig av generelle prinsipper. På bakgrunn av historier om jødisk tradisjon fremhever han den absolutte singulariteten av ansvaret til den andre. Konstruksjonen har hatt en stor innflytelse i psykologi, litteraturteori, kulturstudier, lingvistikk, feminisme, sosiologi og antropologi. mellomrom mellom filosofi og ikke-filosofi eller filosofi og litteratur, er det ikke vanskelig å se hvorfor dette er tilfelle. Det som følger i denne artikkelen, er imidlertid et forsøk på å få fram den filosofiske betydningen av Derrida s tanker. Innholdsfortegnelse.1 Liv og verk. I 1930 ble Derrida født inn i en jødisk familie i Algiers. Han ble også født i et miljø med noen diskriminering. Faktisk trakk han enten fra eller ble tvunget ut av minst to skoler i barndommen bare på grunn av å være jødisk Han ble utvist fra en skole fordi det var en 7 grense på den jødiske befolkningen, og han trakk seg senere fra en annen skole på konto av anti-semitismen Mens Derrida ville motstå en reduktiv forståelse av sitt arbeid basert på hans biografiske liv, kunne det hevdes at slike erfaringer spilte en stor rolle i sin insistering på marginalens betydning, og den andre i hans Senere trodde. Derrida ble to ganger nektet en stilling i den prestisjefylte Ecole Normale Superieure der Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir og flertallet av franske intellektuelle og akademikere begynte sin karriere, men han ble til slutt akseptert til institusjonen i 19 år. Han flyttet dermed fra Alger til Frankrike, og kort tid etter begynte han også å spille en viktig rolle i den venstreorienterte tidskriften Tel Quel Derrida s første arbeid i filosofien var stort sett fenomenologisk, og hans tidlige trening som filosof ble gjort i stor grad gjennom Husserl-objektivet. Andre viktige inspirasjoner på hans tidlige tanke inkluderer Nietzsche Heidegger Saussure, Levinas og Freud Derrida, anerkjenner sin gjeld til alle disse tenkene i utviklerne t av hans tilnærming til tekster, som har blitt kjent som dekonstruksjon. Det var i 1967 at Derrida virkelig kom som en filosof av verdensbetydning. Han publiserte tre viktige tekster av grammatologi, skrift og forskjell og tale og fenomen. Alle disse arbeidene har vært innflytelsesrike av forskjellige grunner, men det er av grammatologi som er det mest berømte arbeidet det er analysert i detalj i denne artikkelen In Of Grammatology Derrida avslører og undergraver den taleskrivende opposisjonen som han argumenterer for, har vært en så innflytelsesrik faktor i den vestlige tanken Hans opptatthet med språk i denne teksten er typisk for mye av hans tidlige arbeid, og siden publiseringen av disse og andre store tekster, inkludert Dissemination Glass, postkortspektrene til Marx, døds gave og vennskapspolitikk, har dekonstruksjonen gradvis flyttet fra å okkupere en stor rolle i det kontinentale Europa, for å også bli en betydelig aktør i den angloamerikanske filosofiske konteksten. Dette er p Articularly så innenfor områdene litterær kritikk og kulturstudier, hvor dekonstruksjonens metode for tekstanalyse har inspirert teoretikere som Paul de Man. Han har også hatt forelesningsposisjoner ved ulike universiteter. Derrida døde i 2004. Konstruksjon har ofte vært gjenstand for litt kontrovers Når Derrida ble tildelt en æresdoktorgrad i Cambridge i 1992, var det protester fra mange analytiske filosofer. Derrida har Derrida også hatt mange dialoger med filosofer som John Searle see Limited Inc, der dekonstruksjonen har blitt kritisert kritisk Selv om det kanskje er urettferdig til tider. Det er imidlertid klart av antipati av slike tenkere at dekonstruksjon utfordrer tradisjonell filosofi på flere viktige måter, og resten av denne artikkelen vil fremheve hvorfor dette er so.2 Deconstructive Strategy. Derrida, som mange andre moderne europeiske teoretikere, er opptatt av å undergrave opposisjonelle tendenser som har eksistert mye av den vestlige filosofiske tradisjonen. Faktisk er dualismene deformasjonsdiet av dekonstruksjon, for uten disse hierarkiene og ordrer av underordnethet vil det bli igjen med ingen steder å gripe inn. Dekonstruksjon er parasitisk i det heller enn å tilintetgjøre en annen stor fortelling eller teori om naturen i den verden vi deltar i, begrenser det seg til å forvride allerede eksisterende fortellinger, og for å avsløre de dualistiske hierarkiene de skjuler. Mens Derrida s hevder å være noen som snakker utelukkende i filosofiens marginer kan bestrides, er det viktig å ta hensyn til disse påstandene Dekonstruksjon er noe infamously, filosofien som sier ingenting I den utstrekning det kan antydes at Derrida s bekymringer ofte er filosofiske, er de tydeligvis ikke fenomenologiske, han forsikrer oss om at hans arbeid skal leses spesielt mot Husserl Sartre og Merleau-Ponty, og heller ikke de er ontologiske. Konstruksjon, og spesielt earl y deconstruction, functions by engaging in sustained analyses of particular texts It is committed to the rigorous analysis of the literal meaning of a text, and yet also to finding within that meaning, perhaps in the neglected corners of the text including the footnotes , internal problems that actually point towards alternative meanings Deconstruction must hence establish a methodology that pays close attention to these apparently contradictory imperatives sameness and difference and a reading of any Derridean text can only reaffirm this dual aspect Derrida speaks of the first aspect of this deconstructive strategy as being akin to a fidelity and a desire to be faithful to the themes and audacities of a thinking WD 84 At the same time, however, deconstruction also famously borrows from Martin Heidegger s conception of a destructive retrieve and seeks to open texts up to alternative and usually repressed meanings that reside at least partly outside of the metaphysical tradition althoug h always also partly betrothed to it This more violent and transgressive aspect of deconstruction is illustrated by Derrida s consistent exhortation to invent in your own language if you can or want to hear mine invent if you can or want to give my language to be understood MO 57 In suggesting that a faithful interpretation of him is one that goes beyond him, Derrida installs invention as a vitally important aspect of any deconstructive reading He is prone to making enigmatic suggestions like go there where you cannot go, to the impossible, it is indeed the only way of coming or going ON 75 , and ultimately, the merit of a deconstructive reading consists in this creative contact with another text that cannot be characterised as either mere fidelity or as an absolute transgression, but rather which oscillates between these dual demands The intriguing thing about deconstruction, however, is that despite the fact that Derrida s own interpretations of specific texts are quite radical, it i s often difficult to pinpoint where the explanatory exegesis of a text ends and where the more violent aspect of deconstruction begins Derrida is always reluctant to impose my text , your text designations too conspicuously in his texts This is partly because it is even problematic to speak of a work of deconstruction, since deconstruction only highlights what was already revealed in the text itself All of the elements of a deconstructive intervention reside in the neglected cornerstones of an already existing system MDM 72 , and this equation is not altered in any significant way whether that system be conceived of as metaphysics generally, which must contain its non-metaphysical track, or the writings of a specific thinker, which must also always testify to that which they are attempting to exclude MDM 73.These are, of course, themes reflected upon at length by Derrida, and they have an immediate consequence on the meta-theoretical level To the minimal extent that we can refer to Der rida s own arguments, it must be recognised that they are always intertwined with the arguments of whomever, or whatever, he seeks to deconstruct For example, Derrida argues that his critique of the Husserlian now moment is actually based upon resources within Husserl s own text which elide the self-presence that he was attempting to secure SP 64-66 If Derrida s point is simply that Husserl s phenomenology holds within itself conclusions that Husserl failed to recognise, Derrida seems to be able to disavow any transcendental or ontological position This is why he argues that his work occupies a place in the margins of philosophy, rather than simply being philosophy per se. Deconstruction contends that in any text, there are inevitably points of equivocation and undecidability that betray any stable meaning that an author might seek to impose upon his or her text The process of writing always reveals that which has been suppressed, covers over that which has been disclosed, and more gene rally breaches the very oppositions that are thought to sustain it This is why Derrida s philosophy is so textually based and it is also why his key terms are always changing, because depending upon who or what he is seeking to deconstruct, that point of equivocation will always be located in a different place. This also ensures that any attempt to describe what deconstruction is, must be careful Nothing would be more antithetical to deconstruction s stated intent than this attempt at defining it through the decidedly metaphysical question what is deconstruction There is a paradoxicality involved in trying to restrict deconstruction to one particular and overarching purpose OG 19 when it is predicated upon the desire to expose us to that which is wholly other tout autre and to open us up to alternative possibilities At times, this exegesis will run the risk of ignoring the many meanings of Derridean deconstruction, and the widely acknowledged difference between Derrida s early and late work is merely the most obvious example of the difficulties involved in suggesting deconstruction says this , or deconstruction prohibits that. That said, certain defining features of deconstruction can be noticed For example, Derrida s entire enterprise is predicated upon the conviction that dualisms are irrevocably present in the various philosophers and artisans that he considers While some philosophers argue that he is a little reductive when he talks about the Western philosophical tradition, it is his understanding of this tradition that informs and provides the tools for a deconstructive response Because of this, it is worth briefly considering the target of Derridean deconstruction - the metaphysics of presence, or somewhat synonymously, logocentrism. a Metaphysics of Presence Logocentrism. There are many different terms that Derrida employs to describe what he considers to be the fundamental way s of thinking of the Western philosophical tradition These include logocentrism, phal logocentrism, and perhaps most famously, the metaphysics of presence, but also often simply metaphysics These terms all have slightly different meanings Logocentrism emphasises the privileged role that logos or speech, has been accorded in the Western tradition see Section 3 Phallogocentrism points towards the patriarchal significance of this privileging Derrida s enduring references to the metaphysics of presence borrows heavily from the work of Heidegger Heidegger insists that Western philosophy has consistently privileged that which is or that which appears, and has forgotten to pay any attention to the condition for that appearance In other words, presence itself is privileged, rather than that which allows presence to be possible at all - and also impossible, for Derrida see Section 4 for more on the metaphysics of presence All of these terms of denigration, however, are united under the broad rubric of the term metaphysics What, then, does Derrida mean by metaphysics. In the After word to Limited Inc Derrida suggests that metaphysics can be defined as. The enterprise of returning strategically , ideally , to an origin or to a priority thought to be simple, intact, normal, pure, standard, self-identical, in order then to think in terms of derivation, complication, deterioration, accident, etc All metaphysicians, from Plato to Rousseau, Descartes to Husserl, have proceeded in this way, conceiving good to be before evil, the positive before the negative, the pure before the impure, the simple before the complex, the essential before the accidental, the imitated before the imitation, etc And this is not just one metaphysical gesture among others, it is the metaphysical exigency, that which has been the most constant, most profound and most potent LI 236.According to Derrida then, metaphysics involves installing hierarchies and orders of subordination in the various dualisms that it encounters M 195 Moreover, metaphysical thought prioritises presence and purity at the expense of the contingent and the complicated, which are considered to be merely aberrations that are not important for philosophical analysis Basically then, metaphysical thought always privileges one side of an opposition, and ignores or marginalises the alternative term of that opposition. In another attempt to explain deconstruction s treatment of, and interest in oppositions, Derrida has suggested that An opposition of metaphysical concepts speech writing, presence absence, etc is never the face-to-face of two terms, but a hierarchy and an order of subordination Deconstruction cannot limit itself or proceed immediately to neutralisation it must, by means of a double gesture, a double science, a double writing, practise an overturning of the classical opposition, and a general displacement of the system It is on that condition alone that deconstruction will provide the means of intervening in the field of oppositions it criticises M 195 In order to better understand this dual methodology - that is also the deconstruction of the notion of a methodology because it no longer believes in the possibility of an observer being absolutely exterior to the object text being examined - it is helpful to consider an example of this deconstruction at work See Speech Writing below.3 Key terms from the early work. Derrida s terms change in every text that he writes This is part of his deconstructive strategy He focuses on particular themes or words in a text, which on account of their ambiguity undermine the more explicit intention of that text It is not possible for all of these to be addressed Derrida has published in the vicinity of 60 texts in English , so this article focused on some of the most pivotal terms and neologisms from his early thought It addresses aspects of his later, more theme-based thought, in Sections 6 7.a Speech Writing. The most prominent opposition with which Derrida s earlier work is concerned is that between speech and writing According to Derrida, thinkers as different as Plato, Rousseau, Saussure, and Levi-Strauss, have all denigrated the written word and valorised speech, by contrast, as some type of pure conduit of meaning Their argument is that while spoken words are the symbols of mental experience, written words are the symbols of that already existing symbol As representations of speech, they are doubly derivative and doubly far from a unity with one s own thought Without going into detail regarding the ways in which these thinkers have set about justifying this type of hierarchical opposition, it is important to remember that the first strategy of deconstruction is to reverse existing oppositions In Of Grammatology perhaps his most famous work , Derrida hence attempts to illustrate that the structure of writing and grammatology are more important and even older than the supposedly pure structure of presence-to-self that is characterised as typical of speech. For example, in an entire chapter of his Course in General Linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure tries to restrict the science of linguistics t o the phonetic and audible word only 24 In the course of his inquiry, Saussure goes as far as to argue that language and writing are two distinct systems of signs the second exists for the sole purpose of representing the first Language, Saussure insists, has an oral tradition that is independent of writing, and it is this independence that makes a pure science of speech possible Derrida vehemently disagrees with this hierarchy and instead argues that all that can be claimed of writing - eg that it is derivative and merely refers to other signs - is equally true of speech But as well as criticising such a position for certain unjustifiable presuppositions, including the idea that we are self-identical with ourselves in hearing ourselves think, Derrida also makes explicit the manner in which such a hierarchy is rendered untenable from within Saussure s own text Most famously, Saussure is the proponent of the thesis that is commonly referred to as the arbitrariness of the sign , and this asserts, to simplify matters considerably, that the signifier bears no necessary relationship to that which is signified Saussure derives numerous consequences from this position, but as Derrida points out, this notion of arbitrariness and of unmotivated institutions of signs, would seem to deny the possibility of any natural attachment OG 44 After all, if the sign is arbitrary and eschews any foundational reference to reality, it would seem that a certain type of sign ie the spoken could not be more natural than another ie the written However, it is precisely this idea of a natural attachment that Saussure relies upon to argue for our natural bond with sound 25 , and his suggestion that sounds are more intimately related to our thoughts than the written word hence runs counter to his fundamental principle regarding the arbitrariness of the sign. b Arche-writing. In Of Grammatology and elsewhere, Derrida argues that signification, broadly conceived, always refers to other signs, and tha t one can never reach a sign that refers only to itself He suggests that writing is not a sign of a sign, except if one says it of all signs, which would be more profoundly true OG 43 , and this process of infinite referral, of never arriving at meaning itself, is the notion of writing that he wants to emphasise This is not writing narrowly conceived, as in a literal inscription upon a page, but what he terms arche-writing Arche-writing refers to a more generalised notion of writing that insists that the breach that the written introduces between what is intended to be conveyed and what is actually conveyed, is typical of an originary breach that afflicts everything one might wish to keep sacrosanct, including the notion of self-presence. This originary breach that arche-writing refers to can be separated out to reveal two claims regarding spatial differing and temporal deferring To explicate the first of these claims, Derrida s emphasis upon how writing differs from itself is simply to suggest that writing, and by extension all repetition, is split differed by the absence that makes it necessary One example of this might be that we write something down because we may soon forget it, or to communicate something to someone who is not with us According to Derrida, all writing, in order to be what it is, must be able to function in the absence of every empirically determined addressee M 375 Derrida also considers deferral to be typical of the written and this is to reinforce that the meaning of a certain text is never present, never entirely captured by a critic s attempt to pin it down The meaning of a text is constantly subject to the whims of the future, but when that so-called future is itself present if we try and circumscribe the future by reference to a specific date or event its meaning is equally not realised, but subject to yet another future that can also never be present The key to a text is never even present to the author themselves, for the written always defers its meaning As a consequence we cannot simply ask Derrida to explain exactly what he meant by propounding that enigmatic sentiment that has been translated as there is nothing outside of the text OG 158 Any explanatory words that Derrida may offer would themselves require further explanation That said, it needs to be emphasised that Derrida s point is not so much that everything is simply semiotic or linguistic - as this is something that he explicitly denies - but that the processes of differing and deferring found within linguistic representation are symptomatic of a more general situation that afflicts everything, including the body and the perceptual So, Derrida s more generalised notion of writing, arche-writing, refers to the way in which the written is possible only on account of this originary deferral of meaning that ensures that meaning can never be definitively present In conjunction with the differing aspect that we have already seen him associate with, and then ext end beyond the traditional confines of writing, he will come to describe these two overlapping processes via that most famous of neologisms diffrance. c Diffrance. Diffrance is an attempt to conjoin the differing and deferring aspects involved in arche-writing in a term that itself plays upon the distinction between the audible and the written After all, what differentiates diffrance and diffrence is inaudible, and this means that distinguishing between them actually requires the written This problematises efforts like Saussure s, which as well as attempting to keep speech and writing apart, also suggest that writing is an almost unnecessary addition to speech In response to such a claim, Derrida can simply point out that there is often, and perhaps even always, this type of ambiguity in the spoken word - diffrence as compared to diffrance - that demands reference to the written If the spoken word requires the written to function properly, then the spoken is itself always at a distance f rom any supposed clarity of consciousness It is this originary breach that Derrida associates with the terms arche-writing and diffrance. Of course, diffrance cannot be exhaustively defined, and this is largely because of Derrida s insistence that it is neither a word, nor a concept , as well as the fact that the meaning of the term changes depending upon the particular context in which it is being employed For the moment, however, it suffices to suggest that according to Derrida, diffrance is typical of what is involved in arche-writing and this generalised notion of writing that breaks down the entire logic of the sign OG 7 The widespread conviction that the sign literally represents something, which even if not actually present, could be potentially present, is rendered impossible by arche-writing, which insists that signs always refer to yet more signs ad infinitum and that there is no ultimate referent or foundation This reversal of the subordinated term of an opposition accomplish es the first of deconstruction s dual strategic intents Rather than being criticised for being derivative or secondary, for Derrida, writing, or at least the processes that characterise writing ie diffrance and arche-writing , are ubiquitous Just as a piece of writing has no self-present subject to explain what every particular word means and this ensures that what is written must partly elude any individual s attempt to control it , this is equally typical of the spoken Utilising the same structure of repetition, nothing guarantees that another person will endow the words I use with the particular meaning that I attribute to them Even the conception of an internal monologue and the idea that we can intimately hear our own thoughts in a non-contingent way is misguided, as it ignores the way that arche-writing privileges difference and a non-coincidence with oneself SP 60-70.In this respect, it needs to be pointed out that all of deconstruction s reversals arche-writing included are par tly captured by the edifice that they seek to overthrow For Derrida, one always inhabits, and all the more when one does not suspect it OG 24 , and it is important to recognise that the mere reversal of an existing metaphysical opposition might not also challenge the governing framework and presuppositions that are attempting to be reversed WD 280 Deconstruction hence cannot rest content with merely prioritising writing over speech, but must also accomplish the second major aspect of deconstruction s dual strategies, that being to corrupt and contaminate the opposition itself. Derrida must highlight that the categories that sustain and safeguard any dualism are always already disrupted and displaced To effect this second aspect of deconstruction s strategic intents, Derrida usually coins a new term, or reworks an old one, to permanently disrupt the structure into which he has intervened - examples of this include his discussion of the pharmakon in Plato drug or tincture, salutary or mal eficent , and the supplement in Rousseau, which will be considered towards the end of this section To phrase the problem in slightly different terms, Derrida s argument is that in examining a binary opposition, deconstruction manages to expose a trace This is not a trace of the oppositions that have since been deconstructed - on the contrary, the trace is a rupture within metaphysics, a pattern of incongruities where the metaphysical rubs up against the non-metaphysical, that it is deconstruction s job to juxtapose as best as it can The trace does not appear as such OG 65 , but the logic of its path in a text can be mimed by a deconstructive intervention and hence brought to the fore. e Supplement. The logic of the supplement is also an important aspect of Of Grammatology A supplement is something that, allegedly secondarily, comes to serve as an aid to something original or natural Writing is itself an example of this structure, for as Derrida points out, if supplementarity is a necessa rily indefinite process, writing is the supplement par excellence since it proposes itself as the supplement of the supplement, sign of a sign, taking the place of a speech already significant OG 281 Another example of the supplement might be masturbation, as Derrida suggests OG 153 , or even the use of birth control precautions What is notable about both of these examples is an ambiguity that ensures that what is supplementary can always be interpreted in two ways For example, our society s use of birth control precautions might be interpreted as suggesting that our natural way is lacking and that the contraceptive pill, or condom, etc hence replaces a fault in nature On the other hand, it might also be argued that such precautions merely add on to, and enrich our natural way It is always ambiguous, or more accurately undecidable , whether the supplement adds itself and is a plenitude enriching another plenitude, the fullest measure of presence , or whether the supplement supplements adds only to replace represents and makes an image its place is assigned in the structure by the mark of an emptiness OG 144 Ultimately, Derrida suggests that the supplement is both of these things, accretion and substitution OG 200 , which means that the supplement is not a signified more than a signifier, a representer than a presence, a writing than a speech OG 315 It comes before all such modalities. This is not just some rhetorical suggestion that has no concrete significance in deconstruction Indeed, while Rousseau consistently laments the frequency of his masturbation in his book, The Confessions Derrida argues that it has never been possible to desire the presence in person , before this play of substitution and the symbolic experience of auto-affection OG 154 By this, Derrida means that this supplementary masturbation that plays between presence and absence eg the image of the absent Therese that is evoked by Rousseau is that which allows us to conceive of being present and ful filled in sexual relations with another at all In a sense, masturbation is originary , and according to Derrida, this situation applies to all sexual relations All erotic relations have their own supplementary aspect in which we are never present to some ephemeral meaning of sexual relations, but always involved in some form of representation Even if this does not literally take the form of imagining another in the place of, or supplementing the presence that is currently with us, and even if we are not always acting out a certain role, or faking certain pleasures, for Derrida, such representations and images are the very conditions of desire and of enjoyment OG 156.4 Time and Phenomenology. Derrida has had a long and complicated association with phenomenology for his entire career, including ambiguous relationships with Husserl and Heidegger, and something closer to a sustained allegiance with Lvinas Despite this complexity, two main aspects of Derrida s thinking regarding phenomenolog y remain clear Firstly, he thinks that the phenomenological emphasis upon the immediacy of experience is the new transcendental illusion, and secondly, he argues that despite its best intents, phenomenology cannot be anything other than a metaphysics SP 75, 104 In this context, Derrida defines metaphysics as the science of presence, as for him as for Heidegger , all metaphysics privileges presence, or that which is While they are presented schematically here, these inter-related claims constitute Derrida s major arguments against phenomenology. According to Derrida, phenomenology is a metaphysics of presence because it unwittingly relies upon the notion of an indivisible self-presence, or in the case of Husserl, the possibility of an exact internal adequation with oneself SP 66-8 In various texts, Derrida contests this valorisation of an undivided subjectivity, as well as the primacy that such a position accords to the now , or to some other kind of temporal immediacy For instance, in S peech and Phenomena Derrida argues that if a now moment is conceived of as exhausting itself in that experience, it could not actually be experienced, for there would be nothing to juxtapose itself against in order to illuminate that very now Instead, Derrida wants to reveal that every so-called present , or now point, is always already compromised by a trace, or a residue of a previous experience, that precludes us ever being in a self-contained now moment SP 68 Phenomenology is hence envisaged as nostalgically seeking the impossible that is, coinciding with oneself in an immediate and pre-reflective spontaneity Following this refutation of Husserlian temporality, Derrida remarks that in the last analysis, what is at stake is the privilege of the actual present, the now SP 62-3 Instead of emphasising the presence of a subject to themselves ie the so-called living-present , Derrida strategically utilises a conception of time that emphasises deferral John Caputo expresses Derrida s poin t succinctly when he claims that Derrida s criticisms of Husserlian temporality in Speech and Phenomena involve an attempt to convey that What is really going on in things, what is really happening, is always to come Every time you try to stabilise the meaning of a thing, try to fix it in its missionary position, the thing itself, if there is anything at all to it, slips away cf SP 104, Caputo DN 31 To put Derrida s point simplistically, it might be suggested that the meaning of a particular object, or a particular word, is never stable, but always in the process of change eg the dissemination of meaning for which deconstruction has become notorious Moreover, the significance of that past change can only be appreciated from the future and, of course, that future is itself implicated in a similar process of transformation were it ever to be capable of becoming present The future that Derrida is referring to is hence not just a future that will become present, but the future that makes a ll presence possible and also impossible For Derrida, there can be no presence-to-self, or self-contained identity, because the nature of our temporal existence is for this type of experience to elude us Our predominant mode of being is what he will eventually term the messianic see Section 6 , in that experience is about the wait, or more aptly, experience is only when it is deferred Derrida s work offers many important temporal contributions of this quasi-transcendental variety.5 Undecidability. In its first and most famous instantiation, undecidability is one of Derrida s most important attempts to trouble dualisms, or more accurately, to reveal how they are always already troubled An undecidable, and there are many of them in deconstruction eg ghost, pharmakon, hymen, etc , is something that cannot conform to either polarity of a dichotomy eg present absent, cure poison, and inside outside in the above examples For example, the figure of a ghost seems to neither present or absent, o r alternatively it is both present and absent at the same time SM. However, Derrida has a recurring tendency to resuscitate terms in different contexts, and the term undecidability also returns in later deconstruction Indeed, to complicate matters, undecidability returns in two discernible forms In his recent work, Derrida often insists that the condition of the possibility of mourning, giving, forgiving, and hospitality, to cite some of his most famous examples, is at once also the condition of their impossibility see section 7 In his explorations of these possible-impossible aporias, it becomes undecidable whether genuine giving, for example, is either a possible or an impossible ideal. Derrida s later philosophy is also united by his analysis of a similar type of undecidability that is involved in the concept of the decision itself In this respect, Derrida regularly suggests that a decision cannot be wise, or posed even more provocatively, that the instant of the decision must actuall y be mad DPJ 26, GD 65 Drawing on Kierkegaard, Derrida tells us that a decision requires an undecidable leap beyond all prior preparations for that decision GD 77 , and according to him, this applies to all decisions and not just those regarding the conversion to religious faith that preoccupies Kierkegaard To pose the problem in inverse fashion, it might be suggested that for Derrida, all decisions are a faith and a tenuous faith at that, since were faith and the decision not tenuous, they would cease to be a faith or a decision at all cf GD 80 This description of the decision as a moment of madness that must move beyond rationality and calculative reasoning may seem paradoxical, but it might nevertheless be agreed that a decision requires a leap of faith beyond the sum total of the facts Many of us are undoubtedly stifled by the difficulty of decision-making, and this psychological fact aids and, for his detractors, also abets Derrida s discussion of the decision as it appears in tex ts like The Gift of Death Deconstruction and the Possibility of Justice Adieu to Emmanuel Lvinas and Politics of Friendship. In Adieu to Emmanuel Lvinas Derrida argues that a decision must always come back to the other, even if it is the other inside the subject, and he disputes that an initiative which remained purely and simply mine would still be a decision AEL 23-4 A theory of the subject is incapable of accounting for the slightest decision PF 68-9 , because, as he rhetorically asks, would we not be justified in seeing here the unfolding of an egological immanence, the autonomic and automatic deployment of predicates or possibilities proper to a subject, without the tearing rupture that should occur in every decision we call free AEL 24 In other words, if a decision is envisaged as simply following from certain character attributes, then it would not genuinely be a decision Derrida is hence once more insisting upon the necessity of a leap beyond calculative reasoning, and beyond th e resources of some self-contained subject reflecting upon the matter at hand A decision must invoke that which is outside of the subject s control If a decision is an example of a concept that is simultaneously impossible within its own internal logic and yet nevertheless necessary, then not only is our reticence to decide rendered philosophically cogent, but it is perhaps even privileged Indeed, Derrida s work has been described as a philosophy of hesitation , and his most famous neologism, diffrance explicitly emphasises deferring, with all of the procrastination that this term implies Moreover, in his early essay Violence and Metaphysics , Derrida also suggests that a successful deconstructive reading is conditional upon the suspension of choice on hesitating between the ethical opening and the logocentric totality WD 84 Even though Derrida has suggested that he is reluctant to use the term ethics because of logocentric associations, one is led to conclude that ethical behaviour fo r want of a better word is a product of deferring, and of being forever open to possibilities rather than taking a definitive position The problem of undecidability is also evident in more recent texts including The Gift of Death In this text, Derrida seems to support the sacrificing of a certain notion of ethics and universality for a conception of radical singularity not unlike that evinced by the hyper-ethical sacrifice that Abraham makes of his son upon Mt Moriah, according to both the Judaic and Christian religions alike GD 71 To represent Derrida s position more precisely, true responsibility consists in oscillating between the demands of that which is wholly other in Abraham s case, God, but also any particular other and the more general demands of a community see Section 6 Responsibility is enduring this trial of the undecidable decision, where attending to the call of a particular other will inevitably demand an estrangement from the other others and their communal needs Whate ver decision one may take, according to Derrida, it can never be wholly justified GD 70 Of course, Derrida s emphasis upon the undecidability inherent in all decision-making does not want to convey inactivity or a quietism of despair, and he has insisted that the madness of the decision also demands urgency and precipitation DPJ 25-8 Nevertheless, what is undergone is described as the trial of undecidability LI 210 and what is involved in enduring this trial would seem to be a relatively anguished being In an interview with Richard Beardsworth, Derrida characterises the problem of undecidability as follows However careful one is in the theoretical preparation of a decision, the instant of the decision, if there is to be a decision, must be heterogeneous to the accumulation of knowledge Otherwise, there is no responsibility In this sense not only must the person taking the decision not know everything the decision, if there is to be one, must advance towards a future which is not known, which cannot be anticipated NM 37 This suggestion that the decision cannot anticipate the future is undoubtedly somewhat counter-intuitive, but Derrida s rejection of anticipation is not only a rejection of the traditional idea of deciding on the basis of weighing-up and internally representing certain options By suggesting that anticipation is not possible, he means to make the more general point that no matter how we may anticipate any decision must always rupture those anticipatory frameworks A decision must be fundamentally different from any prior preparations for it As Derrida suggests in Politics of Friendship the decision must surprise the very subjectivity of the subject PF 68 , and it is in making this leap away from calculative reasoning that Derrida argues that responsibility consists PF 69.a Responsibility to the Other. Perhaps the most obvious aspect of Derrida s later philosophy is his advocation of the tout autre the wholly other, and The Gift of Death will be our main focus in explaining what this exaltation of the wholly other might mean Any attempt to sum up this short but difficult text would have to involve the recognition of a certain incommensurability between the particular and the universal, and the dual demands placed upon anybody intending to behave responsibly For Derrida, the paradox of responsible behaviour means that there is always a question of being responsible before a singular other eg a loved one, God, etc , and yet we are also always referred to our responsibility towards others generally and to what we share with them Derrida insists that this type of aporia, or problem, is too often ignored by the knights of responsibility who presume that accountability and responsibility in all aspects of life - whether that be guilt before the human law, or even before the divine will of God - is quite easily established GD 85 These are the same people who insist that concrete ethical guidelines should be provided by any philosopher worth h is or her salt GD 67 and who ignore the difficulties involved in a notion like responsibility, which demands something importantly different from merely behaving dutifully GD 63.Derrida s exploration of Abraham s strange and paradoxical responsibility before the demands of God, which consists in sacrificing his only son Isaac, but also in betraying the ethical order through his silence about this act GD 57-60 , is designed to problematise this type of ethical concern that exclusively locates responsibility in the realm of generality In places, Derrida even verges on suggesting that this more common notion of responsibility, which insists that one should behave according to a general principle that is capable of being rationally validated and justified in the public realm GD 60 , should be replaced with something closer to an Abrahamian individuality where the demands of a singular other eg God are importantly distinct from the ethical demands of our society GD 61, 66 Derrida equivocate s regarding just how far he wants to endorse such a conception of responsibility, and also on the entire issue of whether Abraham s willingness to murder is an act of faith, or simply an unforgivable transgression As he says, Abraham is at the same time, the most moral and the most immoral, the most responsible and the most irresponsible GD 72 This equivocation is, of course, a defining trait of deconstruction, which has been variously pilloried and praised for this refusal to propound anything that the tradition could deem to be a thesis Nevertheless, it is relatively clear that in The Gift of Death Derrida intends to free us from the common assumption that responsibility is to be associated with behaviour that accords with general principles capable of justification in the public realm ie liberalism In opposition to such an account, he emphasises the radical singularity of the demands placed upon Abraham by God GD 60, 68, 79 and those that might be placed on us by our own loved ones Ethics, with its dependence upon generality, must be continually sacrificed as an inevitable aspect of the human condition and its aporetic demand to decide GD 70 As Derrida points out, in writing about one particular cause rather than another, in pursuing one profession over another, in spending time with one s family rather than at work, one inevitably ignores the other others GD 69 , and this is a condition of any and every existence He argues that I cannot respond to the call, the request, the obligation, or even the love of another, without sacrificing the other other, the other others GD 68 For Derrida, it seems that the Buddhist desire to have attachment to nobody and equal compassion for everybody is an unattainable ideal He does, in fact, suggest that a universal community that excludes no one is a contradiction in terms According to him, this is because I am responsible to anyone that is to say, to any other only by failing in my responsibility to all the others, to the ethic al or political generality And I can never justify this sacrifice I must always hold my peace about it What binds me to this one or that one, remains finally unjustifiable GD 70 Derrida hence implies that responsibility to any particular individual is only possible by being irresponsible to the other others , that is, to the other people and possibilities that haunt any and every existence. b Wholly Other Messianic. This brings us to a term that Derrida has resuscitated from its association with Walter Benjamin and the Judaic tradition more generally That term is the messianic and it relies upon a distinction with messianism. According to Derrida, the term messianism refers predominantly to the religions of the Messiahs - ie the Muslim, Judaic and Christian religions These religions proffer a Messiah of known characteristics, and often one who is expected to arrive at a particular time or place The Messiah is inscribed in their respective religious texts and in an oral tradition that dict ates that only if the other conforms to such and such a description is that person actually the Messiah The most obvious of numerous necessary characteristics for the Messiah, it seems, is that they must invariably be male Sexuality might seem to be a strange prerequisite to tether to that which is beyond this world, wholly other, but it is only one of many Now, Derrida is not simplistically disparaging religion and the messianisms they propound In an important respect, the messianic depends upon the various messianisms and Derrida admits that he cannot say which is the more originary The messianism of Abraham in his singular responsibility before God, for Derrida, reveals the messianic structure of existence more generally, in that we all share a similar relationship to alterity even if we have not named and circumscribed that experience according to the template provided by a particular religion However, Derrida s call to the wholly other, his invocation for the wholly other to come , is not a call for a fixed or identifiable other of known characteristics, as is arguably the case in the average religious experience His wholly other is indeterminable and can never actually arrive Derrida more than once recounts a story of Maurice Blanchot s where the Messiah was actually at the gates to a city, disguised in rags After some time, the Messiah was finally recognised by a beggar, but the beggar could think of nothing more relevant to ask than when will you come DN 24 Even when the Messiah is there , he or she must still be yet to come, and this brings us back to the distinction between the messianic and the various historical messianisms The messianic structure of existence is open to the coming of an entirely ungraspable and unknown other, but the concrete, historical messianisms are open to the coming of a specific other of known characteristics The messianic refers predominantly to a structure of our existence that involves waiting - waiting even in activity and a ceaseless openness towards a future that can never be circumscribed by the horizons of significance that we inevitably bring to bear upon that possible future In other words, Derrida is not referring to a future that will one day become present or a particular conception of the saviour who will arrive , but to an openness towards an unknown futurity that is necessarily involved in what we take to be presence and hence also renders it impossible A deconstruction that entertained any type of grand prophetic narrative, like a Marxist story about the movement of history toward a pre-determined future which, once attained, would make notions like history and progress obsolete, would be yet another vestige of logocentrism and susceptible to deconstruction SM Precisely in order to avoid the problems that such messianisms engender - eg killing in the name of progress, mutilating on account of knowing the will of God better than others, etc - Derrida suggests that I am careful to say let it com e because if the other is precisely what is not invented, the initiative or deconstructive inventiveness can consist only in opening, in uncloseting, in destabilising foreclusionary structures, so as to allow for the passage toward the other RDR 60.7 Possible and Impossible Aporias. Derrida has recently become more and more preoccupied with what has come to be termed possible-impossible aporias - aporia was originally a Greek term meaning puzzle, but it has come to mean something more like an impasse or paradox In particular, Derrida has described the paradoxes that afflict notions like giving, hospitality, forgiving and mourning He argues that the condition of their possibility is also, and at once, the condition of their impossibility In this section, I will attempt to reveal the shared logic upon which these aporias rely. The aporia that surrounds the gift revolves around the paradoxical thought that a genuine gift cannot actually be understood to be a gift In his text, Given Time Der rida suggests that the notion of the gift contains an implicit demand that the genuine gift must reside outside of the oppositional demands of giving and taking, and beyond any mere self-interest or calculative reasoning GT 30 According to him, however, a gift is also something that cannot appear as such GD 29 , as it is destroyed by anything that proposes equivalence or recompense, as well as by anything that even proposes to know of, or acknowledge it This may sound counter-intuitive, but even a simple thank-you for instance, which both acknowledges the presence of a gift and also proposes some form of equivalence with that gift, can be seen to annul the gift cf MDM 149 By politely responding with a thank-you , there is often, and perhaps even always, a presumption that because of this acknowledgement one is no longer indebted to the other who has given, and that nothing more can be expected of an individual who has so responded Significantly, the gift is hence drawn into the cycle o f giving and taking, where a good deed must be accompanied by a suitably just response As the gift is associated with a command to respond, it becomes an imposition for the receiver, and it even becomes an opportunity to take for the giver , who might give just to receive the acknowledgement from the other that they have in fact given There are undoubtedly many other examples of how the gift can be deployed, and not necessarily deliberately, to gain advantage Of course, it might be objected that even if it is psychologically difficult to give without also receiving and in a manner that is tantamount to taking this does not in-itself constitute a refutation of the logic of genuine giving According to Derrida, however, his discussion does not amount merely to an empirical or psychological claim about the difficulty of transcending an immature and egocentric conception of giving On the contrary, he wants to problematise the very possibility of a giving that can be unequivocally disassocia ted from receiving and taking. The important point is that, for Derrida, a genuine gift requires an anonymity of the giver, such that there is no accrued benefit in giving The giver cannot even recognise that they are giving, for that would be to reabsorb their gift to the other person as some kind of testimony to the worth of the self - ie the kind of self-congratulatory logic that rhetorically poses the question how wonderful I am to give this person that which they have always desired, and without even letting them know that I am responsible This is an extreme example, but Derrida claims that such a predicament afflicts all giving in more or less obvious ways For him, the logic of a genuine gift actually requires that self and other be radically disparate, and have no obligations or claims upon each other of any kind He argues that a genuine gift must involve neither an apprehension of a good deed done, nor the recognition by the other party that they have received, and this seems to render the actuality of any gift an impossibility Significantly, however, according to Derrida, the existential force of this demand for an absolute altruism can never be assuaged, and yet equally clearly it can also never be fulfilled, and this ensures that the condition of the possibility of the gift is inextricably associated with its impossibility For Derrida, there is no solution to this type of problem, and no hint of a dialectic that might unify the apparent incommensurability in which possibility implies impossibility and vice versa At the same time, however, he does not intend simply to vacillate in hyperbolic and self-referential paradoxes There is a sense in which deconstruction actually seeks genuine giving, hospitality, forgiving and mourning, even where it acknowledges that these concepts are forever elusive and can never actually be fulfilled. b Hospitality. It is also worth considering the aporia that Derrida associates with hospitality According to Derrida, genuine hosp itality before any number of unknown others is not, strictly speaking, a possible scenario OH 135, GD 70, AEL 50, OCF 16 If we contemplate giving up everything that we seek to possess and call our own, then most of us can empathise with just how difficult enacting any absolute hospitality would be Despite this, however, Derrida insists that the whole idea of hospitality depends upon such an altruistic concept and is inconceivable without it OCF 22 In fact, he argues that it is this internal tension that keeps the concept alive. As Derrida makes explicit, there is a more existential example of this tension, in that the notion of hospitality requires one to be the master of the house, country or nation and hence controlling His point is relatively simple here to be hospitable, it is first necessary that one must have the power to host Hospitality hence makes claims to property ownership and it also partakes in the desire to establish a form of self-identity Secondly, there is the further point that in order to be hospitable, the host must also have some kind of control over the people who are being hosted This is because if the guests take over a house through force, then the host is no longer being hospitable towards them precisely because they are no longer in control of the situation This means, for Derrida, that any attempt to behave hospitably is also always partly betrothed to the keeping of guests under control, to the closing of boundaries, to nationalism, and even to the exclusion of particular groups or ethnicities OH 151-5 This is Derrida s possible conception of hospitality, in which our most well-intentioned conceptions of hospitality render the other others as strangers and refugees cf OH 135, GD 68 Whether one invokes the current international preoccupation with border control, or simply the ubiquitous suburban fence and alarm system, it seems that hospitality always posits some kind of limit upon where the other can trespass, and hence has a tendency to be rather inhospitable On the other hand, as well as demanding some kind of mastery of house, country or nation, there is a sense in which the notion of hospitality demands a welcoming of whomever, or whatever, may be in need of that hospitality It follows from this that unconditional hospitality, or we might say impossible hospitality, hence involves a relinquishing of judgement and control in regard to who will receive that hospitality In other words, hospitality also requires non-mastery, and the abandoning of all claims to property, or ownership If that is the case, however, the ongoing possibility of hospitality thereby becomes circumvented, as there is no longer the possibility of hosting anyone, as again, there is no ownership or control. c Forgiveness. Derrida discerns another aporia in regard to whether or not to forgive somebody who has caused us significant suffering or pain This particular paradox revolves around the premise that if one forgives something that is actually fo rgivable, then one simply engages in calculative reasoning and hence does not really forgive Most commonly in interviews, but also in his recent text On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness Derrida argues that according to its own internal logic, genuine forgiving must involve the impossible that is, the forgiving of an unforgivable transgression - eg a mortal sin OCF 32, cf OH 39 There is hence a sense in which forgiving must be mad and unconscious OCF 39, 49 , and it must also remain outside of, or heterogenous to, political and juridical rationality This unconditional forgiveness explicitly precludes the necessity of an apology or repentance by the guilty party, although Derrida acknowledges that this pure notion of forgiveness must always exist in tension with a more conditional forgiveness where apologies are actually demanded However, he argues that this conditional forgiveness amounts more to amnesty and reconciliation than to genuine forgiveness OCF 51 The pattern of this discussion is undoubtedly beginning to become familiar Derrida s discussions of forgiving are orientated around revealing a fundamental paradox that ensures that forgiving can never be finished or concluded - it must always be open, like a permanent rupture, or a wound that refuses to heal. This forgiveness paradox depends, in one of its dual aspects, upon a radical disjunction between self and other Derrida explicitly states that genuine forgiveness must engage two singularities the guilty and the victim As soon as a third party intervenes, one can again speak of amnesty, reconciliation, reparation, etc but certainly not of forgiveness in the strict sense OCF 42 Given that he also acknowledges that it is difficult to conceive of any such face-to-face encounter without a third party - as language itself must serve such a mediating function OCF 48 forgiveness is caught in an aporia that ensures that its empirical actuality looks to be decidedly unlikely To recapitulate, the reason that Derrida s n otion of forgiveness is caught in such an inextricable paradox is because absolute forgiveness requires a radically singular confrontation between self and other, while conditional forgiveness requires the breaching of categories such as self and other, either by a mediating party, or simply by the recognition of the ways in which we are always already intertwined with the other Indeed, Derrida explicitly argues that when we know anything of the other, or even understand their motivation in however minimal a way, this absolute forgiveness can no longer take place OCF 49 Derrida can offer no resolution in regard to the impasse that obtains between these two notions between possible and impossible forgiving, between an amnesty where apologies are asked for and a more absolute forgiveness He will only insist that an oscillation between both sides of the aporia is necessary for responsibility OCF 51.In Memoires for Paul de Man which was written almost immediately following de Man s death i n 1983, Derrida reflects upon the political significance of his colleague s apparent Nazi affiliation in his youth, and he also discusses the pain of losing his friend Derrida s argument about mourning adheres to a similarly paradoxical logic to that which has been associated with him throughout this article He suggests that the so-called successful mourning of the deceased other actually fails - or at least is an unfaithful fidelity because the other person becomes a part of us, and in this interiorisation their genuine alterity is no longer respected On the other hand, failure to mourn the other s death paradoxically appears to succeed, because the presence of the other person in their exteriority is prolonged MDM 6 As Derrida suggests, there is a sense in which an aborted interiorisation is at the same time a respect for the other as other MDM 35 Hence the possibility of an impossible bereavement, where the only possible way to mourn, is to be unable to do so However, even though th is is how he initially presents the problem, Derrida also problematises this success fails, failure succeeds formulation MDM 35.In his essay Fors The Anglish Words of Nicolas Abraham and Maria Torok , Derrida again considers two models of the type of encroachment between self and other that is regularly associated with mourning Borrowing from post-Freudian theories of mourning, he posits although later undermines a difference between introjection, which is love for the other in me, and incorporation, which involves retaining the other as a pocket, or a foreign body within one s own body For Freud, as well as for the psychologists Abraham and Torok whose work Derrida considers, successful mourning is primarily about the introjection of the other The preservation of a discrete and separate other person inside the self psychologically speaking , as is the case in incorporation, is considered to be where mourning ceases to be a normal response and instead becomes pathological Typically, De rrida reverses this hierarchy by highlighting that there is a sense in which the supposedly pathological condition of incorporation is actually more respectful of the other person s alterity After all, incorporation means that one has not totally assimilated the other, as there is still a difference and a heterogeneity EO 57 On the other hand, Abraham and Torok s so-called normal mourning can be accused of interiorising the other person to such a degree that they have become assimilated and even metaphorically cannibalised Derrida considers this introjection to be an infidelity to the other However, Derrida s account is not so simple as to unreservedly valorise the incorporation of the other person, even if he emphasises this paradigm in an effort to refute the canonical interpretation of successful mourning He also acknowledges that the more the self keeps the foreign element inside itself, the more it excludes it Fors xvii If we refuse to engage with the dead other, we also exclude t heir foreignness from ourselves and hence prevent any transformative interaction with them When fetishised in their externality in such a manner, the dead other really is lifeless and it is significant that Derrida describes the death of de Man in terms of the loss of exchange and of the transformational opportunities that he presented MDM xvi, cf WM Derrida s point hence seems to be that in mourning, the otherness of the other person resists both the process of incorporation as well as the process of introjection The other can neither be preserved as a foreign entity, nor introjected fully within Towards the end of Memoires for Paul de Man Derrida suggests that responsibility towards the other is about respecting and even emphasising this resistance MDM 160, 238.8 References and Further Reading. a Derrida s Texts and Their Abbreviations. Acts of Literature ed Attridge, New York Routledge, 1992 AL. Adieu to Emmanuel Lvinas trans Brault Naas, Stanford, California Stanford University Press, 1999 AEL. Circumfessions Fifty Nine Periphrases in Bennington, G Jacques Derrida Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1993 Circ. On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness London Routledge, 2001 OCF. Deconstruction and the Possibility of Justice inc Force of the Law , eds Cornell, Carlson, Benjamin, New York Routledge, 1992 DPJ. Dissemination trans Johnson, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1981 D. Eating Well or the Calculation of the Subject An Interview with Jacques Derrida in Who Comes After the Subject eds Cadava, Connor, Nancy, New York Routledge, 1991, p 96-119.The Ear of the Other Otobiography, Transference, Translation trans Kamuf, ed McDonald, New York Schocken Books, 1985 EO. Edmund Husserl s Origin of Geometry An Introduction trans Leavey, Pittsburgh Duquesne University Press, 1978 1962 HOG. Fors The Anglish Words of Nicolas Abraham and Maria Torok , trans Johnson, in The Wolfman s Magic Word A Cryptonomy Abraham, N Torok, M trans Rand, Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press, 1986 Fors. The Gift of Death trans Wills, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1995 1991 GD. Given Time i Counterfeit Money trans Kamuf, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1992 GT. Hostipitality in Angelaki Journal of the Theoretical Humanities Vol 5, Number 3, Dec 2000.Le Toucher Jean-Luc Nancy Paris Galile, 2000 T. Le Toucher Touch to touch him , in Paragraph trans Kamuf, 16 2, 1993, p 122-57.Limited Inc inc Afterword , ed Graff, trans Weber, Evanston Northwestern University Press, 1998 edition LI. Margins of Philosophy trans Bass, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1982 M. Memoires for Paul de Man trans Lindsay, Culler, Cadava, Kamuf, New York Columbia University Press, 1989 MDM. Memoirs of the Blind The Self-Portrait and Other Ruins trans Brault Naas, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1993 1991 MB. Monolingualism of the Other or the Prosthesis of Origin trans Mensh, Stanford Stanford University Press, 1996 MO. Nietzsche and the Machine Interview with Jacques Derrida interviewer Beardsworth in Journal of Nietzsche Studies Issue 7, Spring 1994 NM Of Grammatology trans Spivak, Baltimore John Hopkins University Press, 1976 OG. Derrida, J Dufourmantelle, A Of Hospitality trans Bowlby, Stanford Stanford University Press, 2000 OH. On the Name inc Passions , ed Dutoit, Stanford Stanford University Press, 1995 ON. Ousia and Gramme A Note to a Footnote in Being and Time trans Casey in Phenomenology in Perspective ed Smith, The Hague Nijhoff, 1970.Parages Paris Galile, 1986 Points Interviews, 1974-1995 ed Weber, trans Kamuf et al, Stanford Stanford University Press, 1995 P. Politics of Friendship trans Collins, New York Verso, 1997 PF. Positions trans Bass, London Athlone Press, 1981 1972 PO. Psyche Inventions of the Other in Reading De Man Reading eds Waters Godzich, Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press, 1989 RDR. Spectres of Marx The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning and the New International trans Kamuf, New York Routledge, 1994 SM. Speech and Phenomena and Other Essays on Husserl s Theory of Signs trans Allison, Evanston Northwestern University Press, 1973 1967 SP. The Work of Mourning eds Brault Naas, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 2001 WM. Writing and Difference trans Bass, Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1978 1967 WD. b Selected Commentaries. Bennington, G Interrupting Derrida Warwick Studies in European Philosophy, London Routledge, 2000.Bennington, G Jacques Derrida Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1993.Caputo, J Deconstruction in a Nutshell New York Fordham University Press, 1997.Caputo, J The Prayers and Tears of Jacques Derrida Bloomington Indiana University Press, 1997.Critchley, S The Ethics of Deconstruction Derrida and Lvinas Oxford, UK Blackwell, 1992.Culler, J On Deconstruction Theory and Criticism after Structuralism London Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983.Gasch, R Inventions of Difference On Jacques Derrida Massachusetts Harvard University Press, 1994 Gasch, R The Tain of the Mirror Derri da and the Philosophy of Reflection Massachusetts Harvard University Press, 1986.Hart, K The Trespass of the Sign Deconstruction, Theology and Philosophy Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1989.Harvey, I Derrida and the Economy of Diffrance Studies in Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, Bloomington Indiana University Press, 1986.Howells, C Derrida Deconstruction from Phenomenology to Ethics Cambridge Polity Press, 1999.Krell, D The Purest of Bastards Works of Art, Affirmation and Mourning in the Thought of Jacques Derrida Pennsylvania Pennsylvania University Press, 2000.Norris, C Derrida Massachusetts Harvard University Press, 1987.Patrick, M Derrida, Responsibility and Politics Avebury Series in Philosophy, Aldershot Ashgate Publishing, 1997.Silverman, H ed Derrida and Deconstruction New York Routledge, 1989.Wood, D The Deconstruction of Time Contemporary Studies in Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey Humanities Press, 1989.Wood, D ed Derrida A C ritical Reader Oxford Blackwell, 1992.Wood, D Bernasconi, R eds Derrida and Diffrance Evanston Northwestern University Press, 1988.Author Information. 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